Badger
Carnivores exhibit a wide variety of responses to recreational activities,
ranging from being highly sensitive to human disturbance (e.g., Grizzly Bears)
to being well adapted to the presence of humans and human activities (e.g.,
Skunks and Coyotes).Claar et al. provide a recent,
comprehensive survey of recreational
impacts on carnivores. Although their report focuses on
Montana much of their information and many of their recommendations apply to B.C.
Badgers are Red-listed predators found in open areas
and brushlands where they hunt fossorial (burrowing) prey such as Ground Squirrels
and Pocket Gophers. Badgers are at risk because the
area of suitable habitat in B.C. is small, and much
of that habitat has already been greatly modified by
human activity. The dry regions of the southern Interior
and the east Kootenay provide the habitat that Badgers
prefer: grasslands and open pine or fir forests.
Principal sources of information:
Carnivores. J.J. Claar, N. Anderson, D. Boyd, et al. 1999. Pp. 7.1–7.63
In Effects of recreation on Rocky Mountain Wildlife: A review for Montana, edited by G. Joslin and H. Youmans.
Committee on Effects of Recreation on Wildlife, Montana Chapter of The Wildlife Society.
Rare amphibians, reptiles, and mammals of
British Columbia. 1999. S.G. Cannings, L.R. Ramsay, D.F. Fraser, and M.A. Fraker. B.C.
Ministry of Environment, Lands and Parks, Victoria, B.C.
For current information on the species, including species conservation status,
distribution, and reports and references, see BC Species
and Ecosystems Explorer
http://www.env.gov.bc.ca/atrisk/toolintro.html
Bats (Red- and Blue-listed Species)
British Columbia is home to 16 species of bats. Most are migratory, arriving in the province in
spring and leaving in the fall; exact timing of these seasonal movements varies with species and location within the province. It is during their period of residency that concern exists
regarding impacts of backcountry recreation.
While migratory bats are in B.C., their principal activity is birthing and
raising offspring. The concern is for the sites used by bats to give birth and raise young
(maternity colonies), and the sites used by bats for daytime roosts.
A few species of bats are year-round residents, and thus the concern about
roosting and den sites exists throughout the year. Hibernation is a critical period in the life
cycle of bats, a time they typically lose 20 to 40% of their body weight and severely deplete
their reserves of body fat. During this time, bats are extremely vulnerable to human disturbance
in the caves, mines, buildings, tree cavities, tree bark, and rock crevices they use as winter
hibernacula. Caving activity, particularly in winter, can severely affect bat hibernacula. A bat
disturbed during hibernation uses up valuable fat reserves prematurely, with the result that it
may later die of starvation. The sensitivity of bats to human disturbance at roost sites is well
established.
Principal sources of information:
Bats and Forests Symposium, October 19–21, 1995. By
R.M.R. Barclay and R.M. Brigham. B.C. Ministry of Forests, Victoria
Working Paper 23/1996.
The Bats of British Columbia (Vol. 1). 1993. D.W. Nagorsen and
R.W. Brigham. Royal B.C. Museum and UBC Press, Vancouver.
For current information on the species, including species conservation
status, distribution, and reports and references, see
BC Species and Ecosystems Explorer
http://www.env.gov.bc.ca/atrisk/toolintro.html
For (1997 data) species distribution and map, see:
www.for.gov.bc.ca/tasb/legsregs/fpc/fpcguide/other/species/species-28.htm
Bison
Bison react to humans on foot more quickly than to humans on mechanized
vehicles such as snowmobiles. In winter, Bison use groomed snowmobile trails as travel routes,
and the level of use increases with increasing snow depth. Snowmobilers may cause Bison to
flee when encountered. Aune’s study in Yellowstone Park discovered
that heavy human activity within 58 meters of trails might temporarily displace wildlife.
However, Bison do not appear to use groomed ski trails to the same extent as they use snowmobile trails.
Principal sources of information:
Effects of winter recreation on wildlife of the Greater Yellowstone
Area: A literature review and assessment. 1999. T. Olliff, K. Legg, and B. Kaeding. Report to
the Greater Yellowstone Coordinating Committee, Yellowstone National Park WY.
Impact of winter recreationists on wildlife in a portion of Yellowstone
National Park, Wyoming. 1981. K.E. Aune. M.Sc. thesis, Montana State University, Bozeman, MT.
For current information on the species, including species conservation
status, distribution, and reports and references, see
BC Species and Ecosystems Explorer
http://www.env.gov.bc.ca/atrisk/toolintro.html
Caribou (Mountain Ecotype Red-listed)
All caribou in British Columbia belong to the woodland subspecies
(Rangifer tarandus caribou), but can be further divided into three ecotypes based on
differences in habitat use, behaviour and migration patterns:
- Mountain ecotype caribou live in southeastern B.C. They are characterized by their
use of high elevation habitat in late winter where they forage almost exclusively on arboreal
lichens.
- Northern ecotype caribou lives in west-central and northern B.C. During winter,
these caribou use low elevation forests or windswept alpine ridges where they crater for
terrestrial lichens. They also feed on arboreal lichens during winter but to a lesser extent.
- Boreal ecotype caribou resides in the lowlands of northeastern B.C where animals
are dispersed in scattered, relatively sedentary groups.
Concerns related to the potential effects of recreation are greatest for the red-listed Mountain
Caribou; however, increasing road access in other parts of B.C. and the potential for more
backcountry use is a concern among caribou biologists. The Mountain Caribou Science Team (2005)
summarized the risk of disturbance related to recreation:
Disturbance by human-related activities affects both short-term behaviour of
Caribou and longer-term habitat use. Studies have demonstrated that Caribou populations in other
parts of Canada and Scandinavia spend less time foraging in the presence of winter ecotourism
operations; however, Caribou appear to acclimate to the presence of humans as the season
progresses (Duchesne et al. 2000).
While the short-term behavioural effects might be minimal, biologists are more
concerned about longer-term consequences, such as displacement from preferred habitat caused by
increasing backcountry activity and development, snowmobiling, skiing and commercial backcountry
recreation and resource use.
A study of reindeer in Norway found that areas within 5 km of resorts or from
roads and power lines in combination were avoided, and that maternal reindeer avoided areas up to
10 km from resorts (Nellemann et al. 2001). Although data are limited, there is considerable
concern regarding the effects of increasing use of snowmobiles in mountain Caribou habitat (Kinley
2003). The proliferation of roads in high elevation forests, improvements in the technology of
snowmobiles, as well as a recent surge in the popularity of the sport, have led to extensive
snowmobiling activity in some key areas of mountain caribou habitat. There are reliable but
anecdotal reports that Mountain Caribou use of these areas has declined as snowmobiling activity
has increased. A study of commercial heli-skiing activity within Mountain Caribou range in the
West Kootenay found evidence that Caribou use of areas was lower during months and years when
heli-skiing activity was highest ( Wilson and Hamilton 2003). Alpine ski developments in Caribou
habitat create very high levels of use that are assumed to displace Mountain Caribou. Researchers have observed Caribou being displaced from range by snowmobiles, and lower use of some areas by
Caribou has been documented where snowmobile activity has increased in recent years (Kinley,
unpublished). Displacement is hypothesized to force Caribou into poorer habitat, which could be
associated with more abundant predators, poorer forage quality, or a higher risk of accidents.
Principal sources of information:
Cumulative effects of habitat change and backcountry recreation on mountain
caribou in the Central Selkirk Mountains. 2003. Wilson, S. F., and D. Hamilton. Prepared for: B.C.
Ministry of Sustainable Resource Management, Nelson, Canadian Mountain Holidays, Banff, AB, and
Pope & Talbot Ltd., Nakusp, BC.
Cumulative impacts of tourist resorts on wild reindeer
(Rangifer tarandus tarandus) during winter. Nellemann, C., P. Jordhøy,
O. G. Støen, and O. Strand. 2001. Arctic 53:9-17.>
Impacts of backcountry recreation activities on Mountain Caribou: management
concerns, interim management guidelines and research needs. 2000. K. Simpson and E. Terry. B.C.
Ministry of Environment, Lands and Parks,Victoria B.C.
Wildlife Working Report 99. Available at
http://wwwd.env.gov.bc.ca/wld/documents/techpub/wr99.pdf
Mountain Caribou in managed forests: Preliminary recommendations
for managers. 1994. S.K. Stevenson, H.M. Armleder, M.J. Jull, et al. B.C. Ministry of
Forests, Victoria, BC. Available at:
http://www.for.gov.bc.ca/hfd/pubs/Docs/Mr/Mr030.htm
Mountain caribou situation analysis. 2005.
Mountain Caribou Science Team. Species at Risk Coordination Office, Integrated Land Management Bureau, B.C. Ministry of
Agriculture and Lands, Victoria.
Mountain Caribou in managed forests: Recommendations for Managers. Second
Edition. 2001. S.K. Stevenson, H.M. Armleder, M.J. Jull, et al. B.C.
Ministry of Environment, Lands and Parks, Victoria, BC. Wildlife Report No. R-26. Available at
http://www.env.gov.bc.ca/wld/documents/techpub/r26_mtcaribou.pdf
Responses of woodland caribou to winter ecotourism in the Charlevoix Biosphere
Reserve, Canada. 2000. Duchesne, M., S. D. Côté, and C. Barrette. Biological
Conservation 96:311-317.
Snowmobile-mountain caribou interactions: a summary of perceptions and an
analysis of trends in caribou distribution. 2003. Kinley, T. Prepared for: B.C. Ministry of Water,
Land and Air Protection, Victoria, BC.
For current information on the species, including species conservation
status, distribution, and reports and references, see BC Species and Ecosystems Explorer:
http://www.env.gov.bc.ca/atrisk/toolintro.html
Fisher (Blue-listed)
In their review of Fisher, Claar et al. (1999) noted that the direct effects of
recreational activities on this species have not been systematically examined. However, the
literature suggests that Fishers are adaptable to human activity, except, perhaps, females with
kits. Possible indirect effects include loss, degradation, or fragmentation of prime habitats and
displacement as a result of increased human access.
Principal sources of information:
Carnivores. 1999. J.J. Claar, N. Anderson, D. Boyd, et al. Pp. 7.1–
7.63 InEffects of recreation on Rocky Mountain Wildlife: A review for Montana, edited by
G. Joslin and H. Youmans. Committee on Effects of Recreation on Wildlife, Montana Chapter of The
Wildlife Society.
Effects of winter recreation on wildlife of the Greater Yellowstone Area: a
literature review and assessment. 1999. T. Olliff, K. Legg, and B. Kaeding. Report to the
Greater Yellowstone Coordinating Committee, Yellowstone National Park, WY.
For current information on the species, including species conservation
status, distribution, and reports and references, see BC Species and Ecosystems Explorer
http://www.env.gov.bc.ca/atrisk/toolintro.html
For (1997 data) species distribution and map, see:
www.for.gov.bc.ca/tasb/legsregs/fpc/fpcguide/other/species/species-31.htm
Gray Wolf
A study of large carnivores in the Rocky Mountains noted that wolves
tended to avoid human settlements, exhibit slight aversion within about 1 km of open roads, and
readily used gated and unplowed roads. In Alaska, radio-collared wolves avoided accessible roads
but were attracted to gated and gravel roads that received little use. Other studies found that
wolves avoided exploiting their prey near clusters of human habitation and development, especially
in narrow river valleys.
The same study noted that wolves are sensitive to human disturbance near active
den sites from mid-April to July, but provided no evidence to support this statement. Beyond the
problem of disturbance and displacement, domestic dogs also present a significant risk through the
transmission of infectious diseases and parasites to wolves.
Principal sources of information:
Carnivores. J.J. Claar, N. Anderson, D. Boyd, et al. 1999. Pp. 7.1–
7.63 In Effects of recreation on Rocky Mountain Wildlife: A review for Montana, edited by
G. Joslin and H. Youmans. Committee on Effects of Recreation on Wildlife, Montana
Chapter of The Wildlife Society.
Effects of winter recreation on wildlife of the Greater Yellowstone Area: a
literature review and assessment. 1999. T. Olliff, K. Legg, and B. Kaeding. Report to the Greater
Yellowstone Coordinating Committee,
Yellowstone National Park,
WY.
Resilience and conservation of large carnivores in the
Rocky Mountains. 1996. J.L. Weaver, P.C. Paquet, and L.F. Ruggiero. Conservation Biology
10(4):964– 976.
For current information on the species, including species conservation status,
distribution, and reports and references, see BC Species and Ecosystems Explorer:
http://www.env.gov.bc.ca/atrisk/toolintro.html
Grizzly Bear (Blue-listed)
Grizzly bears are an integral part of maintaining healthy ecosystems in B.C. because having a healthy population makes the province better able to sustain many other species. Grizzly bears also play an important role in First Nations culture, as well as many tourism and recreational activities.
Learn more about Grizzly bears in B.C.
Grizzly Bear Conservation Ranking in B.C.
Lynx
Studies are lacking on the impacts of backcountry recreational activities on
Lynx. However, it is not likely that these activities will cause direct mortality of Lynx, but
they may indirectly affect natality and survival. Recreational activities and their associated
infrastructure could potentially affect the suitability of habitat available to Lynx. Lynx may
reduce use of otherwise suitable habitat because of unfamiliar sights, sounds, and smells
associated with human activities.
Motorized activities such as snowmobiling may affect lynx as this activity
occurs at a time when animals are often in poorer condition. Non-motorized recreational
activities could have some effect on lynx as a result of unpredictable encounters.
It is believed that the above mentioned potential impacts would also be
limited as a result of lynx distribution and abundance and relatively low probability of
encounters.
Principal sources of information:
Carnivores. J.J. Claar, N. Anderson,
D. Boyd, et al. 1999. Pp. 7.1–7.63
In Effects of recreation on Rocky Mountain Wildlife: A review for
Montana, edited by G. Joslin and H. Youmans. Committee on Effects of Recreation on Wildlife,
Montana Chapter of The Wildlife Society.
Effects of winter recreation on wildlife of the Greater Yellowstone Area: A
literature review and assessment. 1999. T. Olliff, K. Legg, and B. Kaeding. Report to the
Greater Yellowstone Coordinating Committee, Yellowstone National Park.
For current information on the species, including species conservation status, distribution, and reports and references, see
BC Species and Ecosystems Explorer
http://www.env.gov.bc.ca/atrisk/toolintro.html
Mountain Goat
Of all the ungulate species, Mountain Goats appear the most sensitive to
disturbance, especially by helicopters (Wilson and Shackleton 2001). In the Rocky Mountains of
Alberta, Mountain Goats moved in response to helicopters from an approach of at least up to 1.5
km (Penner 1988). In northern British Columbia, a study suggested that goats required a buffer
area of 2 km to completely avoid disturbance (Foster and Rahs 1983). Cote (1996) also recommended that helicopters maintain a minimum of 2 km horizontal distance to avoid disturbance to Mountain
Goats.
Principal sources of information:
A study of canyon-dwelling Mountain Goats in relation to a proposed
hydroelectric development in northwest, Canada. 1983. B.R. Foster and E.Y. Rahs.
Biological Conservation33:209–228.
Backcountry recreation and Mountain Goats. 2001. S.F. Wilson and D.M.
Shackleton. B.C. Ministry of Environment, Lands and Parks, Victoria. Wildlife Bulletin B-103.
Available at
http://www.env.gov.bc.ca/wld/documents/techpub/b103.pdf
Behavioural response and habituation of Mountain Goats in relation to
petroleum exploration at Pinto Creek, Alberta. 1988. D.F. Penner. Biennial Symposium of
the Northern Wild Sheep and Goat Council
6:141–158.
Human disturbance of Mountain Goats and related ungulates: a literature-based
analysis with applications to Goatherd Mountain. 1997. A. Frid. Unpublished report, Kluane
National Park Reserve, Haines Junction, YK.
Mountain Goat responses to helicopter disturbance. 1996. S.D. Cote.
Wildlife Society Bulletin24:681–685.
For current information on the species, including species conservation
status, distribution, and reports and references, see
BC Species and Ecosystems Explorer
http://www.env.gov.bc.ca/atrisk/toolintro.html
For (1997 data) species distribution and map, see:
http://www.for.gov.bc.ca/tasb/legsregs/fpc/fpcguide/other/species/species-36.htm
Rodents: Red and Blue-listed Species
Red- and Blue-listed rodents include 16 species and subspecies of mammals.
Most are small, such as chipmunks, voles, lemmings, and mice, and they occupy a wide range of
habitats from sea level to alpine and from shrub-steppe to evergreen forests. It is difficult
generalize about the impacts of backcountry recreation for such a diverse group of animals,
so the appropriate course of action is to first identify which species likely occur in the
area of activity. The next logical step is to determine the critical needs of those species
present, and then develop specific guidelines to minimize or prevent impacts.
Notwithstanding the need for a site- and species-specific
approach, Hickman, in his paper “Small
mammals,” offers some useful general considerations:
-
In alpine habitats,
small rodents can be affected by even minor levels
of human use
due to the ecological sensitivity of
these high-elevation ecosystems. Local extinctions
can be serious
because alpine species are often isolated
from each other, given the discontinuous distribution
of alpine areas especially in the southern
half
of the province.
- In bog habitats, snowmobiles and other off-highway
vehicles (OHVs) can damage bog vegetation that could
degrade habitats for some species. Trails and roads
that divert or modify drainage also can seriously
degrade bog habitats.
- Snow cover is important to the winter survival
of many rodents and snow compaction by snowmobiles
can markedly increase the mortality of some small
mammals.
Principal sources of information:
Rare amphibians, reptiles, and mammals of British
Columbia. 1999. S.G. Cannings, L.R. Ramsay,
D.F. Fraser, and M.A. Fraker. B.C. Ministry of
Environment, Lands and Parks, Victoria, BC.
Small mammals. 1999. G.R. Hickman, B.G. Dixon,
and J. Corn. Pp. 4.1–4.16 In Effects of
recreation on Rocky Mountain Wildlife: A review
for Montana, edited by G. Joslin and H. Youmans.
Committee on Effects of Recreation on Wildlife,
Montana Chapter of The Wildlife Society.
For current information on the species,
including species conservation status,
distribution, and reports and references, see BC Species and
Ecosystems Explorer:
http://www.env.gov.bc.ca/atrisk/toolintro.html
For (1997 data) species distribution and map, see:
http://www.for.gov.bc.ca/tasb/legsregs/fpc/fpcguide/other/species/species-29.htm
Bighorn Sheep (California and Rocky Mountain) and Thinhorn Sheep (Dall’s
and Stone’s)
Wild sheep are likely more sensitive to human
activities than forest dwelling ungulates, as might be expected from a species living in open
habitats. In addition to habitat needs generally described for hoofed mammals, wild sheep have
additional needs for steep cliffs which serve as escape terrain and as safe places for lambing.
Recreational activities should not prevent wild sheep from accessing escape terrain or increase
time spent in these areas. Operators need to be familiar with such sites in the tenured areas
Human activities that might stress Mountain Sheep include human intrusion,
helicopters, fixed-wing aircraft and all-terrain vehicles (Canfield et al. 1999). While
occasional exposure to these activities likely has minimal effect, chronic exposure could have
longer-term effects.
Helicopter and fixed-wing aircraft activity is the most often cited source of
possible disturbance. Frid (2002) found that Dall Sheep (Ovis dalli dalli) located >
20 m from escape terrain always fled when helicopters approached <2000 m. Horejsi (1976) found that Rocky Mountain Bighorn Sheep (Ovis canadensis canadensis) in Alberta reacted
“explosively” to helicopters, often fleeing when the helicopter was 1.6 km away. In
contrast, Stockwell et al. (1991) found that Desert Bighorn Sheep (O. c. nelsoni)
subjected to 15,000-42,000 sight-seeing flights per year in Grand Canyon National Park did not
flee when helicopters approached within 250 m; however, they reduced their foraging activities
when helicopters were nearby (43% reduction in spring).
Bleich et al. (1994) found that Bighorn Sheep in California responded “
dramatically” to helicopter surveys; however, surveys were conducted at 100 m altitude.
MacArthur et al. (1982) reported that helicopter overflights at 90-250 m above ground resulted in fleeing behaviour and elevated heart rates that lasted for 20-65 seconds. In contrast, Stemp
(1983) found that cardiac responses of Bighorn Sheep to helicopters lasted for up to 1 hour post
disturbance. Both MacArthur et al. (1982) and Stemp (1983) noted cardiac responses persisted even
when sheep appeared to exhibit behaviour consistent with habituation.
Principal sources of information:
A review of the potential effects of winter recreation on Bighorn Sheep. 1998. K.L. Legg. Biennial Symposium of the Northern Wild Sheep and Goat Council
11:14-19.
Behaviour. 1978. V. Geist. Pp. 283–296 In Big Game of North
America: Ecology and Management. Edited by J.L. Schmidt and D.L. Gilbert. Stackpole Books,
Harrisburg, PA.
Cardiac and behavioral responses of mountain sheep to human disturbance.
1982. MacArthur, R. A., V. Geist, and R. H. Johnston. Journal of Wildlife
Management 46:351-358.
Conflicts in national parks: a case study of helicopters and bighorn sheep
time budgets at the Grand Canyon. 1991.
Stockwell, C. A., G. C. Bateman, and J. Berger. Biological Conservation 56:317-328.
Dall's sheep responses to overflights by helicopter and fixed-wing aircraft.
2002.Frid, A. Biological Conservation 110:387-399.
Effects of recreation on Rocky Mountain wildlife: a review for Montana.
Chapter 6 ungulates. 1999. Canfield, J. E., L. J. Lyon, J. M. Hillis, and M. J. Thompson. Montana Chapter of the Wildlife Society.
Heart rate responses of bighorn sheep to environmental factors and harassment. 1983. Stemp, R. E. M.Sc. thesis, University of Calgary, Calgary, AB.
Mountain Sheep (Ovis canadensis) helicopter
surveys: ramifications for the conservation
of large mammals. 1994. V.C. Bleich,
R.T. Bowyer, A.M. Pauli, M.C. Nicholson,
and R.W. Anthes. Biological Conservation 70:1–7.
Mountain Sheep responses to aerial surveys.
1983. P.R. Krausman and J.J. Hervert. Wildlife Society Bulletin 11:372-375.
Some thoughts on harassment and bighorn sheep. 1976. Horejsi, B. Biennial
Symposium of the Northern Wild Sheep and Goat Council 1:149-155.
Stone’s Sheep of the northern Rockies:
the effects of access. 1999. M.M. Paquet
and R.A. Demarchi. The Foundation of North
American Wild Sheep, Cody, WY, and Guide-Outfitters
Association of B.C., Richmond, BC.
For current information on the species,
including species conservation status,
distribution, and reports and references,
see BC Species and Ecosystems Explorer:
http://www.env.gov.bc.ca/atrisk/toolintro.html
For (1997 data) species distribution and map, see:
http://www.for.gov.bc.ca/tasb/legsregs/fpc/fpcguide/other/species/species-33.htm
Ungulate (Winter Range)
Most of the concern about the effects
of recreational activities on hoofed mammals
is for the winter season, because animals
are most vulnerable to adverse impacts
at that time. During this season, ungulates
are:
The above conditions and factors apply to the entire winter season. However, toward
late winter, the condition of wintering ungulates, suffering from increased energetic
demands and decreased energy intake, will progressively deteriorate until they can
be quite debilitated. The loss of condition and the resulting levels of overwintering
mortality vary according to the severity and duration of the difficult conditions.
In a severe winter on poor range, displacement of animals from even a small segment of
their range may hurt the larger population.
Another critical season is the post-winter or early spring period.
At this time, ungulates are at the lowest point in their annual cycle, and access to
nutritious new forage is essential if individuals are to regain physical condition.
Most adult females are in the last stages of pregnancy and preparing for birth and lactation.
Energy demands are especially heavy, and nutritious forage is essential for their recovery,
and for the successful birthing and rearing of newborns. Lactation is the most
energy-demanding time of the annual cycle for females.
If ungulates are exposed to excessive stresses over the winter, the
effects are rarely observed immediately, for example, by the death of individuals. More
typically, animals move away from a stress, such as winter recreationists, and nothing more
seems to happen. Of course, responses vary according to many factors such as type of activity,
its proximity, its duration, and its frequency, but it is the cumulative incremental effects
of these seemingly innocuous events that are of greatest concerns. Consequences of these
impacts are often subtle, subclinical and delayed. They can occur in late winter/early spring
or during lactation – chronic stress can impair immune responses, animals lose weight
and die of malnutrition, others are less able to escape predators or withstand disease,
females abort fetuses, or newborns fail to thrive because of an inadequate milk supply or
interrupted maternal care.
By their very nature, these types of cumulative impacts are difficult to
document. Studies of ungulate response to recreational activities commonly measure behavioural
changes, such as movements by animals when exposed to different activities at varying
distances. The energy costs of these responses can be determined by extrapolating from
studies of ungulate locomotion. Other studies have used heart rate to monitor ungulate
responses because there is a strong correlation between heart rate and metabolic costs.
Another consideration is that only limited areas are available that meet
the habitat requirements of ungulates for winter range. Although each species has its own
requirements for winter habitat, in most cases winter range is limiting. Consequently,
recreational activities that reduce the physical extent of winter habitat place an additional
demand on animals.
The objective of commercial recreation
guidelines for ungulates on their winter
ranges is to minimize stress and other
adverse effects due to human activities.
The aim is to design and plan commercial
recreation facilities and operations
to minimize impacts on ungulates on their
winter range.
For additional information, visit the Ministry
of Environment
ungulate winter range web site.
Wolverine (Blue-listed)
Wolverines occupy large home ranges, and are therefore likely to intersect
winter recreational activities of many kinds. Winter is the critical period for Wolverine
and other carnivores, and winter recreational activities can potentially affect them in several
ways. Their foraging behaviour along groomed trails and other travel corridors may be disrupted,
or they may retreat from the sound of snowmobiles or human presence. Wolverines
seem to avoid human settlements. In the northern Columbia Mountains of B.C., national parks and
unroaded wilderness areas receive high Wolverine use, but pressures from commercial backcountry
activities, snowmobiling, and logging may jeopardize the ability of these high-use areas
to act as refugia for Wolverine populations
In late winter (February 15 to April 30),reproductive females establish natal
dens in areas with little or no human disturbance, in non-forested habitats (avalanche debris
or large blocky talus) of upper-elevation forested zones (e.g., Englemann Spruce-Subalpine
Fir biogeoclimatic zone). These natal dens are often in the same subalpine cirques that
snowmobilers seek. Females with kits are extremely vulnerable to human disturbance
and will abandon den sites if disturbed.
Principal sources of information:
Rare amphibians, reptiles, and mammals
of British Columbia. 1999. S.G. Cannings,
L.R. Ramsay, D.F. Fraser, and M.A. Fraker.
B.C. Ministry of Environment, Lands and
Parks, Victoria, BC.
Resilience and conservation of large carnivores
in the Rocky Mountains. 1996. J.L. Weaver,
P.C. Paquet, and L.F. Ruggiero. Conservation
Biology 10(4):964–976.
Wolverine ecology and habitat use in the
North Columbia Mountains: Progress report.
2000. J.A. Krebs and D. Lewis. In Proceedings
of a Conference on the Biology and Management
of Species and Habitats at Risk (Vol. 2,
pp. 695–703), edited by L.M. Darling.
B.C. Ministry of Environment, Lands and
Parks, Victoria, BC.
http://www.env.gov.bc.ca/wld/documents/ca08krebs.pdf
For current information on the species,
including species conservation status, distribution, and reports and references,
see BC Species and Ecosystems Explorer:
http://www.env.gov.bc.ca/atrisk/toolintro.html
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